美国辐射环境监测

0052020105li · 发表于 2010-8-1 18:57

Nuclear Events/RadNet Timeline

	= Original radiation monitoring program		= ERAMS established
	= Event with potential for increase in radioactivity		= Enhancement of ERAMS sampling or reporting
	= Event with potential for decrease in radioactivity		= Termination of ERAMS component

Year	Milestone
1945-1955	Approximately 80 above ground nuclear blasts are conducted during this period by the U.S., the Soviet Union, and Great Britain.*

1956	Radiation Alert Network (RAN) is established to provide an early alert for radiation fallout in air and deposition. When incorporated into RadNet in 1973, RAN consisted of 68 sampling stations distributed across the United States.

1957	Windscale (Great Britain) nuclear reactor--a fire results in a limited off-site release of radioactivity (Level 5, based on the International Nuclear Event Scale, or INES).**
1957	Kyshtym (Soviet Union) reprocessing plant--an explosion results in a significant off-site release of radioactivity (INES Level 6).

1956-1958	Approximately 180 above ground nuclear blasts are conducted during this period by the U.S., the Soviet Union, and Great Britain.

1958	Great Britain conducts its last above ground nuclear blast.

1959	Executive Order 10831 and Public Law 86-373 issued, providing the legal basis for additional programs that eventually lead to RadNet. The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) is given the responsibility for radioactive fallout and environmental radiation monitoring under these legal mandates.

1960	Pasteurized Milk Network (PMN) is established to monitor for radiation fallout in the food chain of humans. When incorporated into RadNet in 1973, PMN consisted of 63 sampling stations across the nation.
France conducts its first three above ground nuclear blasts. These are the only blasts reported for any country this year.

1961-1962	Approximately 100 above ground nuclear blasts are conducted during this period by the U.S. and Soviet Union.

1963	The U.S. and Soviet Union cease conducting above ground nuclear blasts, prompted in part by the Cuban Missile Crisis and subsequent Limited Test Ban Treaty prohibiting underwater, atmospheric, and outer space nuclear blasts.

1964	Tritium Surveillance System (TSS) is established to monitor precipitation and tritium concentrations in major river systems downstream of selected nuclear facilities. When incorporated into ERAMS in 1973, TSS consisted of 8 monitoring stations.
1964	People's Republic of China conducts its first above ground nuclear blast. This is the only above ground blast reported for any country this year.

1965-1967	Nine above ground nuclear blasts are conducted during this period by France and the People's Republic of China.

1967	TSS expanded to include drinking water and an expanded network of surface water stations. The TSS consisted of 68 drinking waster sampling stations and 39 surface water stations before being incorporated into Radnet.

1968-1970	Three above ground nuclear blasts are conducted during this period by the People's Republic of China.

1970	Radiation monitoring responsibilities transferred from HEW to EPA based on Reorganization Plan No. 3.

1971-1973	Seventeen above ground nuclear blasts are conducted during this period by France and the People's Republic of China.

1973	ERAMS established by consolidation of several existing monitoring networks. RadNet data begins being reported as summary data in quarterly Environmental Radiation Data (ERD) reports.

1974	Seven above ground nuclear blasts are conducted during this period by France and the People's Republic of China.
France conducts its last above ground nuclear blast.

1976-1978	Six above ground nuclear blasts are conducted during this period by the People's Republic of China. (ERAMS Alert Status)

1978	Analysis of potassium (K) in air is terminated.***

1979	Electronic recording of RadNet data begins with the inclusion of individual sample analytical results in the RadNet Laboratory Information Management System (LIMS).
	Three Mile Island (U.S.) nuclear power plant--a cooling malfunction causes part of the core to melt in a reactor, resulting in a limited off-site release of radioactivity (INES Level 5). (RadNet Alert Status)
	Analysis of tritium (H-3) in milk is terminated.

1980	One above ground nuclear blast is conducted during this period by the People's Republic of China. (RadNet Alert Status)
The People's Republic of China conducts its last above ground nuclear blast.
Saint-Laurent (France) nuclear power plant--a fuel rupture results in a minor off-site release of radioactivity (INES Level 4).

1982	Analysis of uranium (U) and iodine (I) in drinking water is initiated.

1985	Analysis of plutonium (Pu) in milk is terminated.

1986	Chernobyl (Soviet Union) nuclear power plant--a steam explosion and fire causes a major off-site release of radioactivity (INES Level 7). (ERAMS Alert Status)

1987	Analysis of carbon-14 (C-14) in milk is terminated.

1993	ERD reports start being published on the web site of the National Air and Radiation Environmental Laboratory (NAREL), Montogomery, Alabama.

1996	Analysis of U and Pu in precipitation is terminated.

1999	Surface water sampling is terminated (to avoid redundancy with state sampling programs around nuclear facilities).
1999	Tokaimura (Japan) nuclear fuel processing facility--a criticality accident results in a minor off-site release of radioactivity (INES Level 4). (ERAMS Alert Status)

2000	Wildfires threaten the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico. RadNet provides regional and national data to compare to samples taken in response to the fires. (RadNet Alert Status)
Wildfires scorch 200,000 acres of Hanford nuclear reservation in Washington State. ERAMS provides regional and national data to compare to samples taken in response to the fires. (RadNet Alert Status)

2001	Terrorist attacks on September 11 (U.S.)--airliners flown into the World Trade Center and Pentagon. RadNet provides regional and national data to compare to samples taken in response to the attacks. (RadNet Alert Status)

2002	Sample-specific ERAMS data becomes available on the EPA web.

2005	ERAMS becomes RadNet. Name changed to reflect new mission.

*All nuclear blast data obtained from Oklahoma Geological Survey Observatory, Catalog of Nuclear Explosions (last modified July 14, 1998; last accessed April 6, 2002 from http://www.okgeosurvey1.gov/level2/nuke.cat.html).

**All nuclear accident/incident data obtained from International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), INES Factsheet (last accessed April 10, 2002 from http://www.iaea.or.at/worldatom/Periodicals/Factsheets/index.shtml).

***The various additions and terminations of nuclide sampling and analysis indicated from this point forward are only a sample of the many changes that have taken place over the 30+ history of RadNet. Refer to the actual data and the User's Guide for more detail regarding these changes.

0052020105li · 发表于 2010-8-1 18:58

Additional Resources
Link Description
Basic Concepts Basic concepts of radiation and radiation protection for students and teachers, from EPA's main Website.
C-10 C-10 is a citizen's radiological monitoring organization that has monitored emissions from a nuclear reactor from the moment it generated energy. (Newburyport, MA.)
Canadian
Monitoring System The Canadian National Monitoring System.
Facts about
Radiation Written for reporters covering a nuclear emergency, this quick-reference guide contains basic radiation and emergency response definitions and terms.
Illinois The Illinois Department of Nuclear Safety monitors several Illinois sites containing radioactive material and assists with site cleanup.
National Radiological Protection Board The National Radiological Protection Board Website contains information about radiation protection in the United Kingdom.
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection The New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection provides the Continuous Radiological
Environmental Surveillance Telemetry (CREST) system.
NEWNET Station
Locations The NEWNET System provides public access to radiological and meteorological data. Click on the station number to access a plot of gamma radiation, temperature, and barometric pressure for the month or for a listing of the raw data.
NRC Radiation Glossary An excellent glossary of nuclear terms sponsored by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC).
Radiation and Indoor Environments National Laboratory The Radiation and Indoor Environments National Laboratory (RIENL) is an Environmental Protection Agency laboratory dedicated to protecting the public and the environment by minimizing exposure to radiation and indoor air pollution through environmental measurements, applied technologies, and education.
Radiation Protection Division The Radiation Protection Division coordinates activities that protect the public health and environment from the effects of ionizing radiation.
Risks of Exposure Risks of relative doses and dose rates - This site has a graph that compares the risks of radiation to other activities such as smoking cigarettes and being overweight.

Solar
Radiation A list of networks currently collecting solar radiation data at the earth's surface.
SURFRAD Network The SURFRAD Network monitors surface radiation in the continental United States.
Three Mile Island The Three Mile Island Citizens' Monitoring Network is a local grassroots organization that monitors radiation in a 15-mile radius around the TMI nuclear facility.
Virginia The Virginia Radiation Protection Program has a Radiological Emergency Response Team equipped with field instrumentation and a mobile laboratory.
WHO The official Website of the World Health Organization (WHO). Included on this site is the topic Ionizing radiation safety.
WHO's REMPAN REMPAN is a network of WHO collaborating centers and liaison institutions which promote among Member States medical preparedness for radiation accidents, provide advice and medical assistance, and disseminate information, advice, emergency planning and training materials to relevant institutions throughout the world.
National Air & Radiation Environmental Laboratory
540 South Morris Avenue
Montgomery, AL 36115-2601
(334) 270-3400 Voice, (334) 270-3454 Fax

Please direct your Website questions or comments to contact_NAREL@epa.gov.

0052020105li · 发表于 2010-8-1 18:59

本帖最后由 0052020105li 于 2010-8-1 19:05 编辑

AirOverall Air Programs

As of October 1, 2009

The RadNet Air Program consists of 133 sampling locations. Approximately 5 air particulate monitors are currently being installed per month. Continuously operating samplers collect airborne particulates on filters that are collected twice weekly and sent to NAREL for analysis. A gross beta analysis is performed on each air filter, and a gamma scan is done if the beta activity is greater than 1 pCi per cubic meter. Annual composites of the air particulates filters are analyzed for plutonium (Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240) and uranium (U-234, U-235, U-238).

Expansion and Upgrade of Air Program

The RadNet air program is undergoing an expansion and upgrade. The number of sampling stations is targeted to be approximately 160 by 2011. All new air stations will provide gamma data in near real-time that will be transmitted to a central database accessible to both decision makers and the public. The new monitors will continue to submit filters twice weekly for fixed laboratory analyses, and all new real-time sites will be equipped with an alpha/beta counting system, that improves upon the traditional beta only capability. As of May 2009, 124 near real-time monitors are sited. The locations of these new monitors are shown on theAir Program page. The expanded and upgraded system is intended to improve geographical and population coverage and better support response to potential national radiation emergencies.

Analytical Scheme And Primary Rationale For Routine Operations

Air Particulates Analyses	Primary Rationale
Individual Samples: Gross Beta. A Gamma Analysis Is Performed If Elevated Gross Beta Levels Are Found	Screening Analyses Employed To Detect Elevated Levels Of Radioactivity
Annual Composite Samples: Isotopic Pu And U (performed on composite samples from all sites)	Radionuclides Of Concern For Facility And Site Monitoring Activities

This printable map shows the locations of the RadNet air sampling stations. Click on the map for a larger view.

Station Operator removes an air filter from a sampler. The filter will be sent to NAREL for analysis.

0052020105li · 发表于 2010-8-1 19:04

水样监测点位
Drinking Water
The RadNet Drinking Water Program obtains quarterly drinking water samples from 78 sites, which are primarily major population centers. The samples are analyzed for tritium (H-3) quarterly, for gross alpha and beta on annual composite samples from each station, for iodine-131 (I-131) on one sample per year from each station, and for strontium-90 (Sr-90) on one-fourth of all the individual station annual composite samples. All of the annual composite samples are also analyzed by gamma spectrometry. Analyses for radium-226 (Ra-226), plutonium (Pu-238, Pu-239, and Pu-240), and uranium (U-234, U-235, and U-238) are performed if a sample shows elevated gross alpha radioactivity. If the radium-226 result is between 3 and 5 pCi/L, then a radium-228 analysis is performed.

Analytical Scheme And Primary Rationale For Routine Operations
Drinking Water Analyses

0052020105li · 发表于 2010-8-1 19:08

牛奶Milk
The RadNet Pasteurized Milk Program consists of 36 sampling locations that represent a significant portion of the milk consumed in major population centers. Milk is sampled because it is a readily available food source consumed by a large portion of the population; because it is consumed by children in relatively large quantities, which provides a good indication of children's exposure to nuclear events; and, finally, because it is a good indicator of radionuclides present in the environment. Primary functions of this program are to obtain reliable monitoring data about current radionuclide concentrations and to monitor long-term trends. The quarterly samples are analyzed by gamma spectrometry, looking for fission products such as iodine 131 (I-131), barium 140 (Ba-140), and cesium 137 (Ce-137), which could become present in the event of a nuclear accident. On a less frequent schedule, strontium 90 (Sr-90) is determined.

Analytical Scheme And Primary Rationale For Routine Operations
Milk Analyses

0052020105li · 发表于 2010-8-1 19:10

Precipitation
The RadNet Precipitation Program consists of sampling stations at 44 locations. All stations routinely submit precipitation samples as rainfall, snow or sleet occurs. The precipitation samples are composited at NAREL into single monthly samples for each station. Each month that precipitation occurs, an aliquot of each monthly precipitation sample is analyzed for tritium (H-3), gross beta, and gamma emitting nuclides. Also, a composite of the March, April and May monthly composites is analyzed.

Analytical Scheme And Primary Rationale For Routine Operations

Precipitation Analyses

0052020105li · 发表于 2010-8-1 19:11

本帖最后由 0052020105li 于 2010-8-1 19:12 编辑

环境放射性数据(可下载)

Environmental Radiation Data (ERD)
Environmental Radiation Data (ERD) is an electronic and print journal compiled and distributed quarterly by the Office of Radiation and Indoor Air's National Air and Radiation Environmental Laboratory (NAREL) in Montgomery, Alabama. It contains data from RadNet (previously known as ERAMS.)

Previously this was a print publication only, but starting with ERD 75 it will be published in print and online. Previous editions will be made available online as time and manpower allow. Starting with ERD 85 the online version will be published in Portable Document Format (PDF).

Note: The Adobe Acrobat Reader, a free software system, will be needed to read documents in Portable Document Format (PDF). More information on PDF files can be found on the PDF information page.

Editions Available

Environmental Radiation Data Report 67		July - September 1991 [PDF, 63 Pages, 418 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 68		October - December 1991 [PDF, 54 Pages, 358 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 69		January - March 1992 [PDF, 36 Pages, 269 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 70		April - June 1992 [PDF, 43 Pages, 296 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 71		July - September 1992 [PDF, 38 Pages, 270 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 72		October - December 1992 [PDF, 41 Pages, 325 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 73		January - March 1993 [PDF, 36 Pages, 269 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 74		April - June 1993 [PDF, 43 Pages, 300 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 75		July - September 1993 [PDF, 39 Pages, 273KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 76		October - December 1993 [PDF, 49 Pages, 337 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 77		January - March 1994 [PDF, 32 Pages, 247 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 78		April - June 1994 [PDF, 36 Pages, 276 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 79		July - September 1994 [PDF, 35 Pages, 260 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 80		October - December 1994 [PDF, 46 Pages, 320 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 81		January - March 1995 [PDF, 33 Pages, 249 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 82		April - June 1995 [PDF, 39 Pages, 283 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 83		July - September 1995 [PDF, 37 Pages, 261 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 84		October - December 1995 [PDF, 41 Pages, 315 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 85		January - March 1996 [PDF, 46 Pages, 93 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 86		April - June 1996 [PDF, 50 Pages, 201 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 87		July - September 1996 [PDF, 50 Pages, 195 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 88		October - December 1996 [PDF, 62 Pages, 276 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 89		January - March 1997 [PDF, 44 Pages, 177 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 90		April - June 1997 [PDF, 46 Pages, 188 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 91		July - September 1997 [PDF, 48 Pages, 192 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 92		October - December 1997 [PDF, 62 Pages, 143 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 93		January - March 1998 [PDF, 42 Pages, 98.4 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 94		April - June 1998 [PDF, 42 Pages, 97.5 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 95		July - September 1998 [PDF, 44 Pages, 100 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 96		October - December 1998 [PDF, 56 Pages, 135 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 97		January - March 1999 [PDF, 42 Pages, 97.2 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 98		April - June 1999 [PDF, 38 Pages, 87.8 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 99		July - September 1999 [PDF, 38 Pages, 85.5 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 100		October - December 1999 [PDF, 38 Pages, 115 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 101		January - March 2000 [PDF, 36 Pages, 81.8 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 102		April - June 2000 [PDF, 38 Pages, 84.2 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 103		July - Sept 2000 [PDF, 38 Pages, 85 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 104		October - December 2000 [PDF, 50 Pages, 174 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 105		January - March 2001 [PDF, 38 Pages, 147 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 106		April - June 2001 [PDF, 38 Pages, 147KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 107		July - September 2001 [PDF, 40 Pages, 150 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 108		October - December 2001 [PDF, 46 Pages, 161 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 109		January - March 2002 [PDF, 36 Pages, 144 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 110		April - June 2002 [PDF, 34 Pages, 141 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 111		July - Sept 2002 [PDF, 38 Pages, 146 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 112		October - December 2002 [PDF, 46 Pages, 161 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 113		January - March 2003 [PDF, 34 Pages, 142 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 114		April - June 2003 [PDF, 34 Pages, 141 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 115		July - September 2003 [PDF, 36 Pages, 144 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 116		October - December 2003 [PDF, 44 Pages, 159 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 117		January - March 2004 [PDF, 34 Pages, 129 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 118		April - June 2004 [PDF, 36 Pages, 131 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 119		July - September 2004 [PDF, 36 Pages, 131 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 120		October - December 2004 [PDF, 36 Pages, 131 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 121		January - March 2005 [PDF, 36 Pages, 133 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 122		April - June 2005 [PDF, 38 Pages, 135 KB]
Environmental Radiation Data Report 123		July - September 2005 [PDF, 30 Pages, 117 KB]

0052020105li · 发表于 2010-8-1 19:14

本帖最后由 0052020105li 于 2010-8-1 19:15 编辑

RadNet 监测概述

RadNet Monitoring
RadNet operates in either an emergency or a routine mode.

Routine Mode:
To respond quickly to a large-scale release of nuclear material requires an organized nationwide monitoring network already in place with established protocols. To establish and organize such a network in the event of a major nuclear emergency would require too much time for it to be of any real benefit in assessing the impact of such an event, particularly the short-term impacts and addressing the immediate public and governmental concerns. In addition, a rapid response to a nuclear incident requires that the monitoring network be in a state of readiness. This means having operators familiar with the sampling protocols and functional equipment that is in working order and has been properly maintained. To maintain this state of readiness requires operating the system in a "routine mode" at some frequency. In addition to ensuring the network's emergency response capability, routine operation of the network generates valuable data for other purposes such as providing data for long-term trends, defining normal background levels for use in comparing with emergency data and scientific studies.

Routine Sampling Frequencies

Media	Sampling Frequency
Air Particulates	Twice Weekly
Precipitation	Per Event
Drinking Water	Quarterly
Milk	Quarterly

Analytical Scheme And Primary Rationale For Routine Operations

Media	Analyses	Primary Rationale
Air Particulates	Individual Samples: Gross Beta. A Gamma Analysis Is Performed If Elevated Gross Beta Levels Are Found	Screening Analyses Employed To Detect Elevated Levels Of Radioactivity
Air Particulates	Annual Composite Samples: Isotopic Pu And U (Performed On Composite Samples From All Sites)	Radionuclides Of Concern For Facility And Site Monitoring Activities
Precipitation	Individual Samples: H-3, Gross Beta And Gamma	Screening Analyses Employed To Detect Elevated Levels Of Radioactivity
Drinking Water	Individual Samples: H-3 And I-131 Performed On One Sample Per Station Per Year	National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (40 CFR, Part 141.26)
Drinking Water	Composites: Gross Alpha And Gamma Performed On All Samples Sr-90 Performed On Selected Stations U, Pu, And Ra-226 Analyses Are Performed If There Are Elevated Levels Of Gross Alpha Beta Ra-228 Is Performed If There Are Elevated Levels Of Ra-226	National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (40 CFR, Part 141.26)
Milk	Individual Samples: Gamma	Detection Of Radionuclides With A High Probability Of Release Into The Environment
Sr-90 Performed On Selected Stations	Radionuclides Of Concern For Facility And Site Monitoring Activities

Emergency Mode:
RadNet operates in an emergency mode if there is a major nuclear accident. The system is designed to provide data for short-term situations such as fallout, a nuclear accident, or environmental releases from other nuclear events. In the event of a major nuclear incident, data from RadNet can be used to determine the immediate and long-term environmental and public health impacts. Specifically, in terms of public health, data from the monitoring system along with other data would be used for dose assessments.

Two components of RadNet are particularly useful when atmospheric dispersion of significant levels of radionuclides occurs. The air and precipitation component provides immediate information on airborne particulates and precipitation, while the pasteurized milk component provides information on the uptake and transfer of these radionuclides in milk.

0052020105li · 发表于 2010-8-1 19:18

本帖最后由 0052020105li 于 2010-8-1 19:20 编辑

按监测类型划分的监测站汇总

Sampling Stations by Program
MEDIA       NUMBER OF SAMPLING LOCATIONS
Air       133
Drinking Water       78
Milk       36
Precipitation       44

0052020105li · 发表于 2010-8-1 19:21

监测采样点按地域分类

0052020105li · 发表于 2010-8-1 19:39

本帖最后由 0052020105li 于 2010-8-1 19:40 编辑

RadInfo

he Radiation Information Database (RADINFO) contains information about facilities that are regulated by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations for radiation and radioactivity.

RADINFO uses EPA's current "Standard Data Elements For Facility Identification" approved on November 21, 2000. This State/EPA standard offers a common and consistent way to identify facilities of interest to the EPA. RADINFO uses the Data Element Name "Facility Site Name" that is defined as the "public or commercial name of a facility site (i.e., the full name that commonly appears on invoices, signs, or other business documents, or as assigned by the state when the name is ambiguous)." Each facility site will be monitored by one or more environmental interest(s), the environmental permit or regulatory program that applies to the facility site.

RADINFO includes facility information for facilities regulated by these Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) parts: 40 CFR Parts 191 and 194; 40 CFR Part 61; and 40 CFR Part 300. 40 CFR Parts 191 and 194 are EPA's regulations governing the Department of Energy's Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (Part 194) and the management and disposal of spent nuclear fuel, and high-level and transuranic radioactive wastes (Part 191). EPA's regulations limiting the amount of radiation that can be released into the air from a number of different types of facilities are contained in 40 CFR Part 61, Subparts B, H, I, K, Q, R, T, and W. 40 CFR 300 establishes EPA's National Priority List (NPL), and RADINFO only contains information on radioactively-contaminated NPL sites. There are EPA regulated facilities that are not yet included in the RADINFO database, and they are nuclear fuel cycle facilities regulated by 40 CFR Part 190 and designated uranium and thorium mill tailings processing or depository sites regulated by 40 CFR Part 192.

Owners and operators of facilities or sites regulated by EPA must report certain information to EPA on a regular basis in order to demonstrate their compliance with the 40 CFR Part 61 regulations described above. In addition, waste disposal facilities and sites that are listed on EPA's National Priority List have a large amount of data associated with them.

Because RADINFO is only based upon information provided by those sites and facilities regulated by EPA, there may be other facilities subject to EPA regulations that handle radioactive materials that are not included in RADINFO. For example, phosphogypsum piles (also known as stacks) are regulated under 40 CFR 61, Subpart R, but the owners or operators of these stacks are not required to report to EPA until the stacks become inactive. Owners or operators of active phosphogypsum stacks are not required to report to EPA. Thus, information concerning these facilities will not be included in RADINFO. In addition, facilities with radioactive and hazardous (mixed) waste are generally not included in RADINFO.

At this time, RADINFO only identifies sites or facilities regulated by EPA. In the future, EPA hopes to provide additional information which will allow you to access compliance and analysis reports. For now, RADINFO provides links to this type of data where it exists on-line.

For the technical customer, a graphic model of RADINFO and table and column information (metadata) are available. For basic radiation protection terms, follow this link: http://www.epa.gov/radiation/glossary/index.html. For further information on EPA's radiation protection activities and programs, follow this link to the EPA Radiation Protection Program's Home Page.

The following table names in the Radiation Information (RAD) are provided for Envirofacts users who will be accessing RAD directly using Oracle. Use the RADInfo Query Form to obtain formatted reports on other RAD data.

0052020105li · 发表于 2010-8-1 19:43

本帖最后由 0052020105li 于 2010-8-1 19:48 编辑

美国环保署辐射防护项目

Radiation Protection Programs
EPA's Agency-wide Radiation Protection Program comprises seven groups of projects and issue-specific programs, listed below. You can find descriptions of the programs, as well as contacts, news, laws and regulations, publications, and technical materials that are specific to each program.

Radioactive Waste Management: Overview

EPA's primary role in waste management is to set public health and environmental radiation protection standards, provide information to assist waste generators, and provide information to the general public.

WIPP Oversight
describes the project and EPA's role in setting radiation protection standards and in oversight of the U.S. Department of Energy's Waste Isolation Pilot Plant, a storage facility in New Mexico for low-level and transuranic radioactive waste. Yucca Mtn. Standards
describes EPA's public health and environmental radiation protection standards for Yucca Mtn., Nevada, the proposed U.S. Department of Energy repository for spent fuel and high-level radioactive waste.Mixed Waste
provides information about wastes that contain both radioactively and chemically hazardous materials.'Low-Activity' Radioactive Waste
provides information about EPA's request for consideration of safe management options for 'low-activity' radioactive waste.
Naturally-Occurring Radiation: OverviewNaturally-occurring radioactive elements include primordial radionuclides that have been present in the rocks and minerals of the earth's crust since it was formed. Cosmogenic radionuclides, produced by interactions of atoms in the atmosphere with cosmic rays, are a second source of naturally-occurring radioactive materials. Examples of naturally-occurring radionuclides are uranium, radon gas, and carbon-14.
TENORM
describes the sources, radiation content, generation, and management of Technologically-Enhanced Naturally-Occurring Radioactive Materials.Radon in Air
contains information about the sources of and potential for exposure to this colorless, cancer-causing gas and how to protect yourself from it.Radionuclides in Drinking Water
describes the occurrence of radionuclides in drinking water sources and provides standards and guidance materials to help the states and water systems comply with them.SunWise
is an environmental and health education program that aims to teach the public how to protect themselves from overexposure to the sun through the use of classroom-, school-, and community-based components.
Emergency Preparedness and Response Programs: OverviewEPA prepares for and responds to emergencies involving radioactive materials. In the event of a radiological emergency, EPA's Radiological Emergency Response Team (RERT) works with other federal agencies, state and local governments and first responders, and international organizations to monitor, contain, and clean up the release. Throughout the response, EPA uses its protective action guidelines to help determine what actions are necessary to protect people from harmful exposure to radiation.Emergency Response
describes how EPA prepares for and responds to emergencies involving radioactive materials.Orphan Sources
provides an information about EPA's voluntary programs and training to help reduce the incidences of orphaned sealed radioactive sources in scrap metal, the potential for exposure of workers and the public, and contamination of the environment.Laboratory Services
describes the services available from EPA's two national radiation laboratories.Regional Programs
contains contact and descriptive information about the radiation protection activities at EPA's ten regional program offices.
RadMap
RadMap is a stand alone GIS map that is available for emergency response communities.Radionuclides in Air and Water: OverviewRadionuclides in air and water are brought directly into our bodies as we breathe and drink. Once there, they may lodge in our lungs or digestive tract and continue to emit radiation directly to living tissue. EPA protects people from these exposures through its regulatory programs to control air emissions and by setting standards for removing radionuclides from drinking water. Through its voluntary programs, EPA encourages homeowners to help protect themselves and their families by testing their homes for radon and mitigating any problems found.Rad-NESHAPs
describes EPA's National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants: Radionuclides for each of the source categories identified as emitting significant amounts.Radon in Air
contains information about the sources of and potential for exposure to this colorless, cancer-causing gas and how to protect yourself from it.Radionuclides in Drinking Water
describes the occurrence of radionuclides in drinking water sources and provides standards and guidance materials to help the states and water systems comply with them.Regional Programs
provides a brief overview of the radiation protection activities, including air and water, and contact and Web site information for each of EPA's ten regional offices.Laboratory Services
provides an overview of EPA's two national air and radiation laboratories, as well as contact information and links to their Web sites.
EPA Cleanup and Multi-Agency Programs: OverviewCleaning up sites that are contaminated with radioactive materials is an important way in which EPA helps protect people and the environment from unnecessary, harmful exposure to ionizing radiation. EPA's uses the best available science to develop risk assessment tools and guidance for cleaning up sites that are contaminated with radioactive materials. The Cleanup Program also provides technical support and expertise to EPA's Superfund Program. In addition, the Agency works cooperatively with other federal agencies that have radiation protection responsibilities to ensure that consistent site investigation and laboratory methods are used throughout the federal government.Cleanup: Technology & Tools
provides tools and information on innovative cleanup technologies for technical users and the regulated community.MARSSIM
contains current and historical versions of the Multi-Agency Radiation Site Survey and Investigation Manual, training and meeting information, and workgroup contacts.MARLAP
provides the current and historical draft versions of the Multi-Agency Radiological Laboratory Analytical Protocols manual and meeting information.MARSAME
provides the current and historical draft versions of the Multi-Agency Radiological Survey and Assessment of Materials and Equipment manual.ARisk Assessment and Federal Guidance Programs: OverviewRadiation risk assessment is an important tool for evaluating the human health impacts of exposure to radiation and for determining acceptable levels of radioactivity in the environment. For environmental cleanups, compliance with environmental standards often depends on meeting human health risk objectives. In other situations, control of exposure to radiation can be managed through setting radiation dose limits for workers or members of the public. EPA’s Federal Guidance program produces technical guidance documents for converting concentrations of radioactivity in the environment into both radiation dose and risk.Now available: Draft Blue Book - EPA Radiogenic Cancer Risk Models and Projections for the U.S. PopulationRisk Assessment
contains tools and information to assist technical users in conducting risk assessments of radioactively contaminated sites.Federal Guidance

EPA is responsible for issuing general radiation guidance to federal agencies.bout Radioactive Source Reduction and Management: Overview[size=0.9em]Radiation Source Reduction & Management

Source Reduction

Source Tracking

Tracking Radioactive Materials with RFIDs

Orphan Source Detection
and Response

Orphan Source Recovery

Orphan Source Recovery Efforts

Additional Information

The energy emitted by radioactive materials as they decay can be used for such activities as measuring physical properties or the progress of chemical processes in literally hundreds of medical and industrial applications. Applications include measuring the moisture content of soil, measuring density or thickness of materials, eliminating static, and various medical applications. For example, in the paper manufacturing industry, the weight of the sheet per unit area can be determined from the interaction of radiation with the paper. This allows for the continuous monitoring of thickness. In the medical field, following the time course and uptake of a radioactive isotope of iodine (usually iodine-131) enables physicians to evaluate thyroid function.On this page:

What are sources?Radioactive sources, often called "sealed sources," are usually small metal containers in which a specific amount of a radioactive material is sealed. Some types of specialized industrial devices, such as those used for measuring the moisture content of soil and for measuring density or thickness of materials, take advantage of the unique properties of radionuclides, such as Cobalt 60.Sources are usually enclosed in a housing that prevents the escape of the radiation. Equipment that contains one of these sealed sources is called a "sealed source device." As long as the source remains sealed and the housing remains intact and the devices are handled and used properly, there is no health risk from the radioactive source within. In fact, manufacturers of these devices must demonstrate protectiveness in order to receive a license to manufacture and sell them. Purchasers of the devices must be licensed to use the device in the intended manner, and are required to safely and legally dispose of the sources.Top of page

What Hazards are Presented by Sealed Sources?Worldwide, more than 40 deaths and 266 serious injuries have been attributed to uncontrolled radioactive source incidents, some of them related to contaminated scrap metal. Metal processing industries are very concerned about the potential for radioactive materials in scrap metal entering their facilities. Through the end of 2001, an estimated 10,000 plus detections of radioactivity at scrap yards and steel mills in North America had been reported.The radioactivity can come from contaminated metal or from sealed sources contained in industrial or other devices. About 240-250 sealed sources fall out of regulatory control. When lost, stolen, or abandoned, they are referred to as "orphan sources." Once out of regulatory control, sources can make their way into the scrap metal supply through accidental or intentional disposal. If they are not detected prior to melting, human exposure and costly cleanups result. (There have been 96 reported meltings in steel mills worldwide, with the average cost in the U.S. for cleanup of a facility being about $12 million.)There have also been incidents in which orphan sources have been found by individuals who have carried or opened them and been seriously exposed. In addition, sources that fall out of regulatory control potentially can be used to make radiation dispersal devices (RDDs), more commonly called "dirty bombs."

Top of page

What is Being Done About These Hazards?EPA shares the scrap metal industry's concern and has carried out a number of projects to reduce the number of incidents. Because EPA does not have regulatory authority over sealed sources, these projects have focused on voluntary approaches preventing the entry of sources into the economy, tracking sources that do enter the economy, and finding and securing sources that have fallen out of control. These projects focus on four areas:

Prevention
Tracking
Response
Recovery

These projects are supported by two important tools: life-cycle analysis and product stewardship. Life-cycle analysis determines how radionuclides enter the economy for use in sealed source devices and eventually leave the economy. This helps in identifying uses for which alternative technologies might be possible and points at which radioactive sources could fall out of regulatory control. Product stewardship focuses on responsible management of radioactive materials at each stage of the product life-cycle.Top of page

PreventionEPA's primary goal in its prevention projects is to eliminate the loss, theft, or abandonment of sealed sources. We are working toward this goal by seeking alternative technologies to reduce the number of sealed sources that are manufactured.Alternative Technologies for Industrial ApplicationsEPA is exploring alternative technologies as a way to keep radioactively contaminated scrap metal out of the U.S. metal supply. EPA has worked with stakeholders to identify non-nuclear alternatives that are technically and economically advantageous in certain industrial applications. Read more about Alternative Technologies for Industrial Applications here
Top of page

TrackingAn effective tracking and monitoring system will help prevent the loss of radioactive sealed sources. EPA and the Department of Energy (DOE) are investigating technologies to improve tracking and monitoring of high-level radiological sources during transport. This pilot project takes advantage of radiofrequency identification (RFID) tags and is investigating their performance in proximity to radioactive sources. Read more about Tracking Radioactive Materials with Radiofrequency Identification Tags Top of page

ResponseWhile prevention is the most desirable protection, EPA has assisted the scrap metal and demolition industries by identifying and studying the origins of contaminated scrap and orphan sources and developing training.The Agency is also working with international organizations to prevent the importation of contaminated scrap.TrainingAs EPA has identified areas in which training is needed to help prevent the entry of radioactive sources into the metal supply, the Agency has developed CD-ROM-based training courses. Currently available are courses for scrap metal workers and demolition contractors and a new course on proper disposal of tritium exit signs is being developed. Read more about Training here

Demolition
Industry uses gauges and devices containing radioactive sources to measure various properties of products during manufacture. Over time, their labels may be worn off or painted over and the sources forgotten. When the buildings are eventually demolished, the demolition contractor and even the current owner may not know about them. As a result the scrap metal from the building may contain one or more radioactive source devices. Read more about Radioactive Sources at Demolition Sites here
Contaminated Scrap Metal
Millions of tons of steel from old cars, food cans, demolished buildings, and other sources are recycled by U.S. steel manufacturers. The use of radioactive materials in industry and the importation of scrap steel from other countries creates the potential for radioactively contaminated scrap to enter the material stream. This potential threatens both human health and the environment, as well as the economics of the steel industry:
- Radioactive sources or contaminated scrap can cause severe illness or death to workers at metal processing facilities.
- Cleanup of sites where radioactive materials have been melted along with scrap metal cost millions of dollars.

EPA is working with the states and with the scrap metal industry to reduce the potential for radiation to contaminate scrap metal and hence, the steel supply. Read more about Contaminated Scrap Metal here

Scrap Metal from Domestic Nuclear SitesMuch of the metal at DOE facilities and Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) licensed sites is not contaminated, and can be released without a problem. DOE and NRC also maintain criteria for determining contamination levels for any material released, and therefore the likelihood of dangerously contaminated metal being released is very small. In addition, EPA found that the amount of scrap metal being generated by DOE and NRC facilities only accounted for 0.1% of the annual supply of metal used in the US.International TradeScrap metal is one of the most widely traded international commodities. EPA and international metal processing industries share concerns about the potential for contaminated scrap to enter the U.S. market. EPA is investigating several approaches to this problem. Read more about International Response here
Top of page

RecoveryA technical study on the release of radioactive metal for reuse or recycle, alerted EPA to the more serious problem of abandoned radioactive sources entering the public domain. Between 1994 and 1997, metal and recycling industries reported over 2,500 radioactive material incidents. Between 1995 and 1997, members of the U.S. public found about 50 sealed sources each year.EPA Orphan Source Pilot RoundupIn response, EPA funded an Orphan Source Initiative with the Conference of Radiation Control Program Directors (CRCPD), a group of state radiation officials. Other government agencies and the steel and recycling industries cooperated. This initiative was designed to bring unwanted or abandoned sources under control and to provide for the safe and cost-effective disposal or reuse of the source.

finding new owners for unwanted sources
proper disposal for sources that could not be reused
a streamlined approach to disposition of orphaned or unwanted sources through legal reuse, recycle, or disposal developed by a committee of state and federal personnel
a survey that identified known, abandoned sealed sources in the custody of the states and those unwanted by individual owners.

These activities reduced the number of orphan sources and the potential for unnecessary exposure to workers, the public and the environment.The Orphan Source Initiative also secured very large cesium sources located in schools throughout the country. Research revealed that instruments called Gammator Cs-137 irradiators, each containing a source of approximately 300 curies were located in academic institutions throughout the United States. These 1,800 lb. research instruments were given to the institutions in the 1960s through an Atomic Energy Commission grant. Of the 60 instruments known to exist, 25 have already been recovered and recycled.Institutional knowledge of these instruments is fading and it is important to maintain control of these large sources, many of which have not been used in years. Many of the owners have been contacted. Disposal at a discount has been made available by coordinating the pickup of numerous instruments at a time. The cesium-137 is being repackaged and recycled for use in other instruments.Conference of Radiation Control Program Directors (CRCPD) Assistance Web SiteThe CRCPD developed an Unwanted Radioactive Materials

web site, which includes extensive information:

books and videos on identifying and disposing of unwanted radioactive materials
list of licensed waste brokers and disposal companies
contacts for assistance
a source exchange registry

By working with the holders of the unwanted material and the waste brokers, the process of disposal has been simplified and in many cases made more economical through the bulking of materials.Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) DatabasesNRC is developing a database to track sources. Neither the National Source Tracking System nor the Commission's Nuclear Materials Events Database (NMED) which tracks lost sources, will be publicly available. This effort is being coordinated with state information.

NRC's Orphan Sources Activities
This page provides information on NRC's orphan source recovery efforts.

Department of Energy (DOE)The Off-Site Source Recovery Project (OSRP) is a U.S. Government activity sponsored by the National Nuclear Security Administration's (NNSA) Office of Global Threat Reduction and is managed at Los Alamos National Laboratory through the Nuclear Nonproliferation Division. The NNSA is a quasi-independent agency within the Department of Energy.OSRP has an NNSA sponsored mission to remove excess, unwanted, abandoned, or orphan radioactive sealed sources that pose a potential risk to health, safety, and national security.

0052020105li · 发表于 2010-8-1 20:03

Monitoring For Environmental Radiation
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Since the mid-1900s, domestic and foreign weapons tests, accidents, and other radiological events have released radioactive material into the environment. One of EPA's primary roles during and after these events is to monitor the surrounding environment for radiation and radionuclides.

In response to actual emergencies, such as Chernobyl, or potential emergencies, such as the launch or re-entry of nuclear powered satellites, EPA sends specially trained staff to help protect people and the environment. Monitoring allows us to track known releases and to watch for contaminants when there is a potential for release.

On this page:

How does EPA monitor for and track radiation releases?
Looking for Localized Radiation Threats
Identifying Large Scale Contamination: RadNet
How long has EPA monitored for large-scale environmental radiation contamination?
What do the monitoring data show?
Where can I see RadNet monitoring data?

How does EPA monitor for and track radiation releases?

EPA monitors and tracks radiation releases in two ways:

monitoring equipment brought to the scene of an incident by our Radiological Emergency Response Team (RERT) is used to look for localized radiation
RadNet EPA's nationwide monitoring system, which monitors the environment on an on-going basis, is used to monitor larger-scale releases of radioactive material.
Looking for Localized Radiation Threats

RERT's specialized equipment is specifically selected for use in detecting localized radiation in various situations.

Hand-held equipment can be used at sites where radiation is believed to exist – this equipment is primarily used to measure contamination levels that may threaten the safety of responders or the public.

Most of the RERT’s equipment is designed to focus on identifying and assessing potential impacts of low-level contamination – contamination that may present a long-term threat to the public or the environment, but probably isn’t an immediate hazard. Towards this end, the RERT has air samplers that can be placed away from the immediate incident, where lower levels of contamination may be found.

Mobile sample preparation trailers and mobile laboratories are used by EPA to determine whether low-level contamination exists in samples taken from the environment around a site. RERT has two Mobile Environmental Radiation Laboratories (MERLs), which can arrive at any site in the United States within two to four days.
EPA’s scanner van is one of many pieces of specialized equipment that can be used to detect radiation. It can be driven around a large area to identify “hotspots” where radiological contamination or other threats may exist. These vehicles contain the latest radiation survey and communications equipment and are maintained in a constant state of readiness for deployment at a moment's notice.

Identifying Large-Scale Contamination: RadNet

EPA’s RadNet is constantly in operation, with station operators nationwide taking periodic samples of media where radionuclides are likely to be present:

air
drinking water
precipitation
milk.
Samples for testing come from a complex network of sampling stations across the nation that has grown from the earliest program (Radiation Alert Network) begun in 1956 to monitor for fallout and deposition from above-ground nuclear weapons tests. The current name, Radnet, replaces the earlier 'Environmental Radiation Ambient Monitoring System' (ERAMS). Renaming of the system marks its increased importance, reconfiguration, and an expansion of the number of monitoring sites.

RadNet (This link leads away from the Radiation Protection site; use the back button to return.)
This site contains a more thorough description of RadNet, its sampling programs, history, and other related information.
Top of page

How long has EPA monitored for large-scale environmental radiation contamination?

RadNet and its predecessors have been collecting data since 1956. The current system was formed by combining several existing monitoring systems. You can see both the history of radiation monitoring and the nuclear events that RadNet and its predecessors tracked in the Radiological Events and Monitoring Timeline.(This link leads out of the Radiation Protection Web site; use the 'back' button to return.)

Top of page

What do the monitoring data show?

Historical data from RadNet's predecessor, ERAMS, show the rise of environmental radiation during nuclear incidents and its decline as the fallout decays. Since the end of above ground nuclear weapons testing, the day-to-day readings from monitoring sites have fallen. Now, and for many years, analysis of typical samples shows risk levels far below regulatory limits. In fact, results are now generally below levels that instruments can detect.

Data from any significant release, such as Chernobyl, show a clear difference against the day-to-day or background levels RadNet normally detects. By plotting results from sampling stations across the nation, we can determine and track the path of the contaminant plume.

Top of page

Where can I see RadNet monitoring data?

Much of the data collected is available online through EPA's Envirofacts/(RadNet) Database. (This link leads away from the Radiation Protection Web site; use your browser's back button to return.) The system allows users to do a basic query by any one or all of several parameters:

location
media
nuclide/radiation
date range.
A customized query is also available for more advanced users. A users' guide, which describes the system and how to use it, is also available.

In addition, you can view reports complied from the data collected by RadNet and its predecessors at Environmental Radiation Data. (This link leads away from the Radiation Protection Web site; use your browser's back button to return.)

鹤无声 · 发表于 2010-8-2 07:33

中国要后来者都努力啊！

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